Apr 7, 2019 - $p$-Laplacian in polar coordinates

Several times I found myself looking for an explicit expression of the $p$-Laplacian in polar coordinates. Usual Laplace operator considered in polar coordinates can be very useful if one works with radial domains. So, in some problems it can be quite natural to be interested in the corresponding expression for the $p$-Laplacian. However, such an expression appears to be quite bulky, which makes it complicated to apply. Nevertheless, to find easily this expression in future, I decided to post it here.

Let $u = u(x,y) = u(r,\theta)$, where $r>0$ and $\theta \in (-\pi, \pi)$. Then we have

\begin{align} \notag \Delta_p u(x,y) &= \left(u_r^2 + \frac{u_\theta^2}{r^2} \right)^\frac{p-4}{2} \newline \notag &\times \left( (p-1) u_r^2 u_{rr} + \frac{u_r^3}{r} + \frac{2(p-2) u_r u_\theta u_{r\theta}}{r^2} + \frac{u_r^2 u_{\theta \theta}}{r^2} + \frac{u_{rr} u_\theta^2}{r^2} - \frac{(p-3) u_r u_\theta^2}{r^3} + \frac{(p-1) u_\theta^2 u_{\theta \theta}}{r^4} \right). \end{align}

In particular, if $u = u(x,y) = u(r)$, then $u_\theta = u_{\theta \theta}=0$, and we get the usual

\[\Delta_p u(x,y) = (p-1) |u_r|^{p-2} u_{rr} + \frac{|u_r|^{p-2} u_r}{r}.\]
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Mar 29, 2019 - Optimality of an upper bound for the number of ordered factorizations of odd numbers

Let us take any odd natural $n$ and denote by $H(n)$ the number of ways how $n$ can be represented as the product of factors larger or equal than $3$, where the order of factors matters. For instance, if $n=27$, then $H(n)=4$, since

\[n = 3 \cdot 3 \cdot 3 = 9 \cdot 3 = 3 \cdot 9 = 27.\]

It is known that $H(n) < n^{\eta}$, where $\eta = 1.37779\dots$ is the unique positive real zero of $\left(1-\frac{1}{2^s}\right) \zeta(s)=2$, see Theorem 5 in [1]. Our aim is to show that this upper bound is optimal.

Lemma. For any $\varepsilon>0$ there exist infinitely many odd $n$ such that $H(n) > n^{\eta-\varepsilon}$.

Proof. We will argue along the same lines as in Section 3 of [2], where the similar optimality was obtained for all (even) numbers. First, we notice that

\[\left(1-\frac{1}{2^s}\right) \zeta(s) = \sum_{m=1,~ m ~\text{odd}}^{\infty} \frac{1}{m^s}.\]
  1. Chor, B., Lemke, P., & Mador, Z. (2000). On the number of ordered factorizations of natural numbers. Discrete Mathematics, 214(1-3), 123-133. 

  2. Coppersmith, D., & Lewenstein, M. (2005). Constructive bounds on ordered factorizations. SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics, 19(2), 301-303. 

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Jan 10, 2019 - Pleijel's type estimate for the $p$-Laplacian

Consider the sequence $\{\lambda_n(\Omega)\}$ of eigenvalues of the Dirichelet $p$-Laplacian in a bounded domain $\Omega \subset \mathbb{R}^N$ obtained via the Lusternik–Schnirelmann min-max approach. Let $\varphi_n$ be an eigenfunction associated to $\lambda_n(\Omega)$. We are interested in the estimates for the number of nodal domains of $\varphi_n$ which we denote as $\mu(\varphi_n)$.

In the linear case $p=2$, the well-known Courant nodal domain theorem says that $\mu(\varphi_n) \leq n$ for all $n \geq 1$. Its generalization to the nonlinear case $p \neq 2$ obtained in [1] asserts that

\[\mu(\varphi_n) \leq 2n-2 \quad \text{for all } n \geq 2,\]

which implies

\[\limsup_{n \to \infty} \frac{\mu(\varphi_n)}{n} \leq 2.\]

On the other hand, in the linear case $p=2$, there is a result of Pleijel [2] on the following asymptotic refinement of the Courant nodal domain theorem:

\begin{equation}\label{eq:P} \limsup_{n \to \infty} \frac{\mu(\varphi_n)}{n} \leq \frac{4}{j_{0,1}^2} = 0.69166\ldots, \end{equation}

see, e.g., this post for a discussion.

The aim of the present post is to generalize the result of Pleijel to the $p$-Laplacian settings. Pleijel’s approach is purely variational and consists of two main ingredients: the Faber-Krahn inequality and the Weyl law.

  1. The Faber-Krahn inequality is easily available for the $p$-Laplacian, and it can be formulated as
\[|\Omega|^\frac{p}{N} \lambda_1(\Omega) \geq |B_1|^\frac{p}{N} \lambda_1(B_1),\]

where $B_1$ is a unit ball in $\mathbb{R}^N$; see, e.g., the discussion here. Therefore, noting that $\lambda_n(\Omega) = \lambda_1(\Omega_i)$ for any $i=1..\mu(\varphi_n)$ where $\Omega_i$ is a nodal domain of $\varphi_n$, we get


  1. Drábek, P., & Robinson, S. B. (2002). On the generalization of the Courant nodal domain theorem. Journal of Differential Equations, 181(1), 58-71. 

  2. Pleijel, Å. (1956). Remarks on Courant’s nodal line theorem. Communications on pure and applied mathematics, 9(3), 543-550. 

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Nov 8, 2018 - Higher-order variations of the $p$-Dirichlet energy

In this post, we would like to discuss some combinatorial aspects of the $p$-Laplacian. Namely, let $\int_\Omega |\nabla u|^p \, dx$ be the $p$-Dirichlet energy, where $u \in W^{1,p}(\Omega)$ and $p>1$. Its first variation is given by

\[D^1 \left(\int_\Omega |\nabla u|^p \, dx\right) (\xi_1) = p \int_\Omega |\nabla u|^{p-2} (\nabla u, \nabla \xi_1) \, dx,\]

where $\xi_1 \in W^{1,p}(\Omega)$.

The second variation (if exists) is also easy to compute:

\begin{align} \notag D^2 \left(\int_\Omega |\nabla u|^p \, dx\right) (\xi_1, \xi_2) &= p(p-2) \int_\Omega |\nabla u|^{p-4} (\nabla u, \nabla \xi_1) (\nabla u, \nabla \xi_2) \, dx \newline \notag &+ p \int_\Omega |\nabla u|^{p-2} (\nabla \xi_1, \nabla \xi_2) \, dx, \end{align}

where $\xi_2 \in W^{1,p}(\Omega)$.

Let us make some effort to calculate the third variation:

\begin{align} \notag D^3 \left(\int_\Omega |\nabla u|^p \, dx\right) (\xi_1, \xi_2, \xi_3) &= p(p-2)(p-4) \int_\Omega |\nabla u|^{p-6} (\nabla u, \nabla \xi_1) (\nabla u, \nabla \xi_2) (\nabla u, \nabla \xi_3) \, dx \newline \notag &+ p(p-2) \int_\Omega |\nabla u|^{p-4} (\nabla u, \nabla \xi_1) (\nabla \xi_2, \nabla \xi_3) \, dx \newline \notag &+ p(p-2) \int_\Omega |\nabla u|^{p-4} (\nabla u, \nabla \xi_2) (\nabla \xi_1, \nabla \xi_3) \, dx \newline \notag &+ p(p-2) \int_\Omega |\nabla u|^{p-4} (\nabla u, \nabla \xi_3) (\nabla \xi_1, \nabla \xi_2) \, dx, \end{align}

where $\xi_3 \in W^{1,p}(\Omega)$.

We already start seeing some structure. So, let us now try to derive a general formula for the $n$-th variation of the energy functional. Our main result is the following one.

Proposition. Let $u \in W^{1,p}(\Omega)$. If for a natural $n \geq 1$ there exists $n$-th variation of the $p$-Direchlet energy of $u$ in direction $(\xi_1,\dots,\xi_n) \in (W^{1,p}(\Omega))^n$, then

\begin{align} \notag &D^n \left(\int_\Omega |\nabla u|^p \, dx\right) (\xi_1, \dots, \xi_n) \newline \notag &= \int_\Omega \left( \sum\limits_{i=0}^{\lfloor \frac{n}{2} \rfloor} |\nabla u|^{p-2(n-i)} \prod\limits_{j=0}^{n-i-1} (p-2j) \left[\sum\limits_{\sigma \in B(n,n-2i)} \prod\limits_{k=1}^{n-2i} (\nabla u, \nabla \xi_{\sigma(k)}) \left(\sum\limits_{\omega \in P(n,\sigma)} \prod\limits_{l=1}^{i} (\nabla \xi_{\omega(l,1)}, \nabla \xi_{\omega(l,2)}) \right) \right] \right) dx, \end{align}

where

  • $B(n,n-2i)$ is the set of all possible $(n-2i)$-combinations of $\{1,2,\dots,n\}$ such that the ordering inside each $\sigma \in B(n,n-2i)$ is immaterial. Evidently, the cardinality of $B(n,n-2i)$ is ${n \choose n-2i}$. In particular, if $i=0$, then $card(B(n,n-2i)) = 1$.

  • $P(n,\sigma)$ is the set of all possible partitions of the set $\{1,2,\dots,n\} \setminus \sigma$ into pairs such that the ordering of pairs and inside a pair is immaterial. Note that $card(\sigma)=n-2i$, and hence the number of pairs in each $\omega \in P(\sigma)$ is $i$. It is not hard to see that the cardinality of $P(\sigma)$ is $\frac{(2i)!}{2^i i!}$. We represent $\omega$ as a $i \times 2$-matrix $(\omega(s,t))_{s=1..i,~t=1,2}$. For instance, if $n=6$ and $\sigma = \{1,2\}$, then

\[P(\sigma) = \left\{ \begin{pmatrix} 3 & 5 \newline 4 & 6 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} 3 & 4 \newline 6 & 5 \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} 3 & 4 \newline 4 & 6 \end{pmatrix} \right\}.\]
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Oct 19, 2018 - Sobolev-type inequality with product of norms

Lemma. Let $\Omega \subset \mathbb{R}^N$ be a bounded open set, $N \geq 1$. Let $1 \leq q \leq p \leq \gamma$, and $\gamma \leq p^*$ if $N>p$ and $\gamma<\infty$ if $N < p$. Then there exists $C=C(\Omega,q,p,\gamma)$ such that for any $u \in W_0^{1,p}(\Omega)$ the following inequality is satisfied:

\[\left(\int_\Omega |u|^q \, dx \right)^{\gamma-p} \left(\int_\Omega |u|^\gamma \, dx \right)^{p-q} \leq C \left(\int_\Omega |\nabla u|^p \, dx \right)^{\gamma-q}.\]

In fact, this inequality easily follows from the general Sobolev inequality just by applying the latter one to each term on the lhs of the former one. (I’m almost sure there could be some investigation of an inequality of this type in the literature, but I was not able to find it.)

There are a couple of things about this inequality:

1) It is just beautiful that the exponents are permuted)

2) If one considers the optimization problem for the constant $C$, then it is possible to see that a corresponding minimizer of

\[\inf_{u \in W_0^{1,p}(\Omega) \setminus \{0\}} \frac{\left(\int_\Omega |\nabla u|^p \, dx \right)^{\gamma-q}}{\left(\int_\Omega |u|^q \, dx \right)^{\gamma-p} \left(\int_\Omega |u|^\gamma \, dx \right)^{p-q}}\]

exists and satisfies the convex-concave equation

\[-\Delta_p u = \lambda |u|^{q-2} u + |u|^{\gamma-2} u.\]

In fact, such a minimization problem was explicitly considered in connection with the above equation in [1].


Bibliography

  1. Il’yasov, Y. (2005). On nonlocal existence results for elliptic equations with convex–concave nonlinearities. Nonlinear Analysis: Theory, Methods & Applications, 61(1-2), 211-236. 

Sep 25, 2018 - Growth rate of divisor function for odd numbers

Consider the standard divisor function $\sigma_\alpha(n)$ defined as

\[\sigma_\alpha(n) = \Sigma_{d | n} d^\alpha.\]

Assume that $\alpha > 1$. It was proved at least by Gronwall in [1] (yeah, this is the same Gronwall who obtained Gronwall’s inequality) that $\sigma_\alpha(n)$ satisfies

\[\sigma_\alpha(n) < \zeta(\alpha) n^\alpha\]

for all $n \in \mathbb{N}$, and this upper bound is achieved. Here $\zeta(\alpha)$ is the Riemann Zeta function.

Recently, thinking with Falko Baustian on one problem, we were partially interested in the asymptotic behaviour of $\sigma_\alpha(n)$ for odd numbers $n$. The natural question is whether we can improve the upper bound for odd $n$’s?

Proposition. Let $\alpha>1$, and let $n \in \mathbb{N}$ be odd. Then

\[\sigma_\alpha(n) < \left(1-\frac{1}{2^\alpha}\right) \zeta(\alpha) n^\alpha,\]

and this upper bound is achieved.

Proof. We will argue sketchely and along the same lines as in [1], pp. 114-116. First, we decompose an arbitrary $n$ into prime factors as

\[n = p_{\lambda_1}^{\nu_1} \cdot \ldots \cdot p_{\lambda_k}^{\nu_k},\]

where $p_i$ is a prime, $\lambda_i < \lambda_{i+1}$, and $\nu_i > 0$. Note that since $n$ is odd, we have $p_i \neq 2$.

As in formula (5) of [1], we have

\begin{equation}\label{eq:sigma} \sigma_\alpha(n) = n^\alpha \Pi_{i=1}^k \frac{1-\frac{1}{p_{\lambda_i}^{\alpha(\nu_i+1)}}}{1-\frac{1}{p_{\lambda_i}^\alpha}}. \end{equation}

Since the numerator and denominator in \eqref{eq:sigma} are less than one and since $n$ is odd, we can estimate $\sigma_\alpha(n)$ as

\[\sigma_\alpha(n) < n^\alpha \Pi_{i=1}^k \frac{1}{1-\frac{1}{p_{\lambda_i}^\alpha}} < n^\alpha \Pi_{i=2}^\infty \frac{1}{1-\frac{1}{p_{i}^\alpha}} = n^\alpha \left(1-\frac{1}{2^\alpha}\right) \Pi_{i=1}^\infty \frac{1}{1-\frac{1}{p_{i}^\alpha}} = n^\alpha \left(1-\frac{1}{2^\alpha}\right) \zeta(\alpha),\]

where $p_i$ are consequtive primes $p_1 = 2$, $p_2=3$, etc. Therefore, the desired upper bound is obtained.


  1. Gronwall, T. H. (1913). Some asymptotic expressions in the theory of numbers. Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 14(1), 113-122.  2 3

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May 15, 2018 - Eigenvalues of cylinders

Consider a standard 3D cylinder $C_{R,a} := B_R \times [0,a]$, where $B_R \subset \mathbb{R}^2$ is a disk of radius $R>0$, and $a>0$ is the height of the cylinder. It is not hard to see (we will discuss it below) that the spectrum of the Laplace operator on $C_{R,a}$ under zero Dirichlet conditions consists of eigenvalues

\[\lambda_{m,n,k}(R,a) = \frac{j_{m,n}^2}{R^2} + \frac{k^2 \pi^2}{a^2}, \quad m \in \mathbb{N} \cup \{0\}, ~ n,k \in \mathbb{N},\]

where $j_{m,n}$ is the $n$-th positive zero of the Bessel function $J_{m}$ of order $m$. That is, the first term corresponds to the spectrum of $B_R$, and the second term - to the spectrum of $[0,a]$.

Recalling the properties of the spectrum of $B_R$, we know that the multiplicity of any $\lambda_{m,n,k}(R,a)$ can be, at least, one or two. Let us give the following more detailed result whose proof follows directly from the expression of $\lambda_{m,n,k}(R,a)$.

Lemma. Let $R,a>0$. If there exist $m_i,n_i,k_i$, $i=1,2$, such that $\lambda_{m_1,n_1,k_1}(R,a) = \lambda_{m_2,n_2,k_2}(R,a)$, then

\[a = \pi R \left(\frac{k_1^2-k_2^2}{j_{m_2,n_2}^2-j_{m_1,n_1}^2}\right)^{1/2}.\]

In particular, if $R>0$ is fixed, then the set of $a$’s for which the multiplicity of some $\lambda_{m,n,k}(R,a)$ exceeds two is at most countable. The same holds true if we fix $a>0$ and vary $R>0$. Moreover, clearly, analogous assertions can be stated for higher-dimensional cylinders $B_R \times [0,a]$, where a ball $B_R \subset \mathbb{R}^N$.


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May 3, 2018 - Can the multiplicity be purely geometric?

Yesterday, during a discussion with P. Drabek, I have learned about one nice fact (see Lemma below) on the multiplicity of eigenvalues for the following one-dimensional (nonlinear) eigenvalue problem for the weighted $p$-Laplacian:

\[\left\{ \begin{aligned} -(a(x)|u'|^{p-2} u')' &= \lambda b(x) |u|^{p-2}u \quad {\rm in}\ (0,1), \\\ u(0) &= u(1) = 0, \end{aligned} \right. \tag{1}\label{1}\]

where $p \geq 2$, $a,b \in C^1(a,b)$, $a,b > 0$ on $(0,1)$. Denote by $\{\lambda_k\}$ a set of eigenvalues of \eqref{1}. (In fact, $\{\lambda_k\}$ is countable, see below.)

Unlike the linear case $p=2$, in the general nonlinear case $p \neq 2$ it is necessary to specify what one means under the multiplicity of an eigenvalue $\lambda_k$. Naturally, there are two types of the multiplicity:

  • Algebraic multiplicity, say $m$, means that there exist $m$ eigenvalues $\lambda_{l}, \dots, \lambda_{l+m-1}$ with $l \leq k \leq l+m-1$ such that
\[\lambda_{l-1} < \lambda_{l} = \dots = \lambda_{k} = \dots = \lambda_{l+m-1} < \lambda_{l+m}.\]
  • Geometric multiplicity, say $m$, means that there exist $m$ distinct eigenfunctions associated with $\lambda_k$. In fact, it is not entirely clear what it should be meant under “distinct”. Definitely, each eigenfunction has to be defined uniquely up to scaling. Moreover, in the linear case $p=2$, the eigenfunctions have to be linearly independent. However, in the case $p \neq 2$, it seems to be unnecessary to demand the linear independency from eigenfuctions. That is, if $u_1$ and $u_2$ are linearly independent and both associated with $\lambda_k$, and, by some chance, $c_1 u_1 + c_2 u_2$ is again an eigenfunction associated with $\lambda_k$ for some $c_1,c_2 \neq 0$, then all three eigenfunctions $u_1$, $u_2$, $c_1 u_1 + c_2 u_2$ can be considered as distinct.

Just by definition, the algebraic multiplicity implies the geometric one. The natural (and seems to be open) question is the converse assertion: Does the geometric multiplicity imply the algebraic one? Surely, this question is worth for a higher-dimensional problem, too.

In this direction, the following interesting result was proved by J. Nečas (see Appendix V, Theorme 1.1, p. 233 in [1]):

Lemma. All eingevalues of \eqref{1} form a countable set $0 < \lambda_1 < \lambda_2 < \ldots$ such that $\lim\limits_{k\to\infty} \lambda_k = \infty$. All (normed) eigenfunctions are isolated. Moreover, each $\lambda_k$ has only a finite number of (normed) eigenfunctions.


  1. Fučik, S., Nečas, J., Souček, J., & Souček, V. (1973). Spectral analysis of nonlinear operators. Springer. 

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